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Named Microchip Tells of Sowing ‘Chaos’ in 2016 Election,” New York Times, March 23, 2023, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/22/nyregion/douglass-mackey-microchip-hillary-clinton-election.html.

33 Scott Shane and Alan Blinder, “Democrats Faked Online Push to Outlaw Alcohol in Alabama Race,” New York Times, January 7, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/07/us/politics/alabama-senate-facebook-roy-moore.html.

34 Reporting about the effort also alleged that the company, New Knowledge, had created a ruse involving a network of Russian Twitter accounts that began to follow candidate Roy Moore, generating mainstream media coverage that Russian bots supported him. The CEO disputed the claim. I did not work at the company at the time and learned of these allegations through media coverage. Scott Shane and Alan Blinder, “Secret Experiment in Alabama Senate Race Imitated Russian Tactics,” New York Times, June 20, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/19/us/alabama-senate-roy-jones-russia.html.

35 Tony Romm and Craig Timberg, “Facebook Suspends Five Accounts, Including That of a Social Media Researcher, for Misleading Tactics in Alabama Election,” Washington Post, December 22, 2018, https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2018/12/22/facebook-suspends-five-accounts-including-social-media-researcher-misleading-tactics-alabama-election.

36 Matt Osborne, “Swinging a US Senate Race in Alabama, Kremlin-Style Isn’t Illegal, but It Should Be,” Crooks and Liars, January 7, 2019, https://crooksandliars.com/2019/01/how-swing-us-senate-race-alabama-kremlin.

37 Isaac Stanley-Becker, “Facebook Bans Marketing Firm Running ‘Troll Farm’ for Pro-Trump Youth Group,” Washington Post, October 8, 2020, https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/10/08/facebook-bans-media-consultancy-running-troll-farm-pro-trump-youth-group.

38 “Analysis of an October 2020 Facebook Takedown Linked to U.S.,” Stanford Internet Observatory Cyber Policy Center, October 8, 2020, https://cyber.fsi.stanford.edu/io/news/oct-2020-fb-rally-forge.

39 Priyanjana Bengani, “Hundreds of ‘Pink Slime’ Local News Outlets Are Distributing Algorithmic Stories and Conservative Talking Points,” Columbia Journalism Review, December 18, 2019, https://www.cjr.org/tow_center_reports/hundreds-of-pink-slime-local-news-outlets-are-distributing-algorithmic-stories-conservative-talking-points.php.

40 Davey Alba and Jack Nicas, “As Local News Dies, a Pay-for-Play Network Rises in Its Place,” New York Times, October 20, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/18/technology/timpone-local-news-metric-media.html.

41 Sean Hannity (@seanhannity), “Suspicious! Milwaukee Voting…,” Twitter, November 5, 2020, https://twitter.com/seanhannity/status/1324355153185656832.

42 Ethan Duran, “Conservative Backed Website Spread Misleading Claims During Election,” Urban Milwaukee, November 12, 2020, https://urbanmilwaukee.com/2020/11/12/conservative-backed-website-spread-misleading-claims-during-election.

43 Despite their rhetoric, these sites in fact do moderate.

44 Renée DiResta, “Free Speech Is Not the Same as Free Reach,” Wired, August 30, 2018, https://www.wired.com/story/free-speech-is-not-the-same-as-free-reach.

45 Jeff Kosseff, “First Amendment Protection for Online Platforms,” Computer Law & Security Review 35, no. 5 (October 1, 2019): 105340, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2019.105340.

46 There have been many assessments by journalists as well as academics discussing the evidence surrounding this persistent theory—for example, Danielle Keats Citron and Mary Ann Franks, “The Internet as a Speech Machine and Other Myths Confounding Section 230 Reform,” University of Chicago Legal Forum 2020, no. 3 (2020), https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/uclf/vol2020/iss1/3; “Despite Cries of Censorship, Conservatives Dominate Social Media,” Politico, October 27, 2020, https://www.politico.com/news/2020/10/26/censorship-conservatives-social-media-432643; Siva Vaidhyanathan, “Why Conservatives Allege Big Tech Is Muzzling Them,” The Atlantic, July 28, 2019, https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/07/conservatives-pretend-big-tech-biased-against-them/594916; Mathew Ingram, “Republicans Still Convinced Facebook and Twitter Are Biased Against Them,” Columbia Journalism Review, July 18, 2018, https://www.cjr.org/the_media_today/tech-biased-against-conservatives.php; Nitasha Tiku, “Leaked Audio Reveals Google’s Efforts to Woo Conservatives,” Wired, December 10, 2018, https://www.wired.com/story/leaked-audio-reveals-googles-efforts-woo-conservatives; Nicholas Thompson and Fred Vogelstein, “Inside the Two Years That Shook Facebook—and the World,” Wired, February 12, 2018, https:/www.wired.com/story/inside-facebook-mark-zuck erberg-2-years-of-hell; Paul M. Barrett and J. Grant Sims, “False Accusation: The Unfounded Claim That Social Media Companies Censor Conservatives,” New York University, February 2021, https://bhr.stern.nyu.edu/bias-report-release-page. One ongoing challenge with assessing it empirically is that access to data on both moderation and curation algorithms is limited by technology platforms.

47 Ferenc Huszár et al., “Algorithmic Amplification of Politics on Twitter,” PNAS 119, no. 1 (December 21, 2021): e2025334119, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2025334119.

48 “An Update on Senator Kyl’s Review of Potential Anti-conservative Bias,” Meta, June 22, 2020, https://about.fb.com/news/2019/08/update-on-potential-anti-conservative-bias; Kerry Flynn, “Facebook Commissioned a Study of Alleged Anti-conservative Bias. Here’s What It Found,” CNN Business, August 20, 2019, https://www.cnn.com/2019/08/20/media/facebook-anti-conservative-bias-report/index.html; Jon Kyl, “Why Conservatives Don’t Trust Facebook,” Wall Street Journal, August 20, 2019, Internet Archive, https://web.archive.org/web/20190820161311/https://www.wsj.com/articles/why-conservatives-dont-trust-facebook-11566309603.

49 Thomas Kaplan and Sarah Almukhtar, “How Trump Is Outspending Every 2020 Democrat on Facebook,” New York Times, June 11, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/05/21/us/politics/trump-2020-facebook-ads.html.

50 Ferenc Huszár et al., “Algorithmic Amplification of Politics on Twitter,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 119, no. 1 (December 21, 2021), https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2025334119.

51 Reem Nadeem, “Most Americans Think Social Media Sites Censor Political Viewpoints,” Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech, August 19, 2020, https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2020/08/19/most-americans-think-social-media-sites-censor-political-viewpoints.

52 Renée DiResta, “How the Creator Economy Is Incentivizing Propaganda,” NOEMA, June 7, 2023, https://www.noemamag.com/the-new-media-goliaths.

53 Liam Stack, “Trump Wants Your Tales of Social Media Censorship and Your Contact Info,” New York Times, May 16, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/15/us/donald-trump-twitter-facebook-youtube.html.

54 Oliver Darcy, “‘Circus Show’ Summit: Trump Delivers Meandering Speech to His Digital Army of Supporters at the White House,” CNN Business, July 12, 2019, https://edition.cnn.com/2019/07/11/tech/trump-speech-social-media-summit/index.html.

55 Kirsten Grind and John D. McKinnon, “Facebook, Twitter Turn to Right-Leaning Groups to Help Referee Political Speech,” Wall Street Journal, January 8, 2019, https://www.wsj.com/articles/facebook-twitter-solicit-outside-groups-often-on-the-right-to-referee-political-speech-11546966779.

56 Craig Silverman and Jane Lytvynenko, “A New Racist Campaign Against Kamala Harris Is Taking Shape,” BuzzFeed, June 28, 2019, https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/craigsilverman/kamala-harris-black-citizenship.

57 Ben Schreckinger, “Trump’s Culture Warriors Go Home.” Politico, November/December 2018, https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2018/10/29/trump-cernovich-milo-yiannopoulos-richard-spencer-alt-right-2018-221916.

58 “Widower Asks Twitter to Delete Trump’s Conspiracy Tweets,” NBC News, May 27, 2020, https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/donald-trump/twitter-fact-checks-trump-s-misleading-tweet-mail-voting-n1215151.

59 Elizabeth Dwoskin, “Twitter Labels Trump’s Tweets with a Fact Check for the First Time,” Washington Post, May 27, 2020, https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/05/26/trump-twitter-label-fact-check.

60 Donald Trump (@realDonaldTrumpl), “@Twitter is now interfering in the 2020 Presidential Election…,” Twitter, May 27, 2020, https://twitter.com/realDonaldTrump/status/1265427538140188676; Donald Trump (@realDonaldTrumpl), “Twitter is completely stifling FREE SPEECH, and I, as President, will not allow it to happen!,” Twitter, May 27, 2020, https://twitter.com/realDonaldTrump/status/1265427539008380928.

61 “Executive Order on Preventing Online Censorship,” White House, May 28, 2020, https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/executive-order-preventing-online-censorship.

62 “Remarks by President Trump Announcing an Executive Order on Preventing Online Censorship,” White House, May 28, 2020, https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/remarks-president-trump-announcing-executive-order-preventing-online-censorship.

63 David Shepardson, “Biden Revokes Trump Order That Sought to Limit Social Media Firms’ Protections,” Reuters, May 17, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/technology/biden-revokes-trump-order-that-sought-limit-social-media-firms-protections-2021-05-15.

64 Anne Applebaum, “Democracy Is Surprisingly Easy to Undermine,” Atlantic, June 17, 2021, https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2021/06/trump-fraud-stop-steal-copycats/619226/.

65 Russell Muirhead and Nancy L. Rosenblum, A Lot of People Are Saying: The New Conpiracism and the Assault on Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2019), 7–14.

66 Ibid., 34–35, 74.

67 Benkler describes this cycle as an elite-driven mass media disinformation campaign, coming from the top, propagated through Trump’s statements, and spread through right-wing supports (communication teams at the White House and for reelection, the Republican National Convention, Republican officials, right-wing media) and through mainstream media coverage. Cable, network, and local TV and news are more important than some people assume—lots of folks get their political info